morphine sulfate

Paddock Laboratories, LLC

HIGHLIGHTS OF PRESCRIBING INFORMATIONThese highlights do not include all the information needed to use Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution safely and effectively. See full prescribing information for Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution.Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution, CII Initial U.S. Approval: 1941BOXED WARNINGWARNING: RISK OF MEDICATION ERRORS See full prescribing information for complete boxed warning. Morphine Oral Solution is available in 10 mg per 5 mL, 20 mg per 5 mL and 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) concentrations. The 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) concentration is indicated for use in opioid-tolerant patients only.Take care to avoid dosing errors due to confusion between different concentrations and between mg and mL, which could result in accidental overdose and death. (5.1)Keep Morphine Oral Solution out of the reach of children.INDICATIONS AND USAGEMorphine sulfate is an opioid agonist indicated for the relief of moderate to severe acute and chronic pain where an opioid analgesic is appropriate. (1)Morphine sulfate 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) solution is indicated for the relief of moderate to severe acute and chronic pain in opioid-tolerant patients. (1)DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION •Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution: 10 to 20 mg every 4 hours as needed. (2.2) DOSAGE FORMS AND STRENGTHSOral Solution: For the 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) strength, each mL contains 20 mg of morphine sulfate. (3)CONTRAINDICATIONS •Known hypersensitivity to morphine. (4) •Respiratory depression in the absence of resuscitative equipment. (4) •Acute or severe bronchial asthma or hypercarbia. (4) •Paralytic ileus. (4) WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS •Risk of Medication Errors: Use caution when prescribing, dispensing, and administering to avoid dosing errors due to confusion between different concentrations and between mg and mL, which could result in accidental overdose and death. (5.1) •Respiratory depression: Increased risk in elderly, debilitated patients, those suffering from conditions accompanied by hypoxia, hypercapnia, or upper airway obstruction. (5.2) •Controlled substance: Morphine sulfate is a Schedule II controlled substance with an abuse liability similar to other opioids. (5.3) •CNS effects: Additive CNS depressive effects when used in conjunction with alcohol, other opioids, or illicit drugs. (5.4) •Elevation of intracranial pressure: May be markedly exaggerated in the presence of head injury, other intracranial lesions. (5.5) •Hypotensive effect: Increased risk with compromised ability to maintain blood pressure. (5.6) •Prolonged gastric obstruction: In patients with gastrointestinal obstruction, especially paralytic ileus. (5.7) •Sphincter of Oddi spasm and diminished biliary/pancreatic secretions. Increased risk with biliary tract disease. (5.8) •Special Risk Groups: Use with caution and in reduced dosages in patients with severe renal or hepatic impairment, Addison’s disease, hypothyroidism, prostatic hypertrophy, or urethral stricture, elderly, CNS depression, toxic psychosis, acute alcoholism and delirium tremens, may aggravate or induce seizures. (5.9) •Impaired mental/physical abilities: Caution must be used with potentially hazardous activities. (5.10) Side EffectsMost common adverse reactions seen on initiation of therapy are: constipation, nausea, somnolence, lightheadedness, dizziness, sedation, vomiting, and sweating. (6) To report SUSPECTED ADVERSE REACTIONS, contact Perrigo® at 1-800-328-5113 or FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or www.fda.gov/medwatch DRUG INTERACTIONS •CNS depressants: Increased risk of respiratory depression, hypotension, profound sedation, or coma. Use with caution in reduced dosages. (7.1) •Muscle relaxants: Enhance the neuromuscular blocking action of skeletal muscle relaxants and produce an increased degree of respiratory depression. (7.2) •Mixed agonist/antagonist opioid analgesics (i.e. pentazocine, nalbuphine, and butorphanol): May reduce the analgesic effect and/or may precipitate withdrawal symptoms. (7.3) •Cimetidine: Precipitates apnea, confusion and muscle twitching. (7.4) •Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): Potentiate the action of morphine sulfate. Morphine sulfate should not be used in patients taking MAOIs or within 14 days of stopping such treatment. (7.5) USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS •Based on animal data, may cause fetal harm. (8.1) •Geriatric patients (8.5), Hepatic impairment (8.8), Renal impairment (8.9): Use caution during dose selection, starting at the low end of the dosing range while carefully monitoring for side effects.

FULL PRESCRIBING INFORMATION: CONTENTS*

• WARNING: RISK OF MEDICATION ERRORS
• 1 MORPHINE SULFATE INDICATIONS AND USAGE
• 2 MORPHINE SULFATE DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION
  • 2.1 Individualization of Dosage
  • 2.2 Initiation of Therapy in Opioid-Naïve Patients
  • 2.3 Conversion to Oral Morphine Sulfate
  • 2.4 Maintenance of Therapy
  • 2.5 Cessation of Therapy
• 3 DOSAGE FORMS AND STRENGTHS
• 4 MORPHINE SULFATE CONTRAINDICATIONS
• 5 WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS
  • 5.1 Risk of Medication Errors
  • 5.2 Respiratory Depression
  • 5.3 Misuse, Abuse and Diversion of Opioids
  • 5.4 Interactions with Alcohol and Drugs of Abuse
  • 5.5 Use In Head Injury and Increased Intracranial Pressure
  • 5.6 Hypotensive Effects
  • 5.7 Gastrointestinal Effects
  • 5.8 Use in Pancreatic/Biliary Tract Disease
  • 5.9 Special Risk Groups
  • 5.10 Driving and Operating Machinery
• 6 MORPHINE SULFATE ADVERSE REACTIONS
• 7 DRUG INTERACTIONS
  • 7.1 CNS Depressants
  • 7.2 Muscle Relaxants
  • 7.3 Mixed Agonist/Antagonist Opioid Analgesics
  • 7.4 Cimetidine
  • 7.5 Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)
  • 7.6 Anticholinergics
  • 7.7 P-Glycoprotein (PGP) Inhibitors
• 8 USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS
  • 8.1 Pregnancy
  • 8.2 Labor and Delivery
  • 8.3 Nursing Mothers
  • 8.4 Pediatric Use
  • 8.5 Geriatric Use
  • 8.6 Neonatal Withdrawal Syndrome
  • 8.7 Gender
  • 8.8 Hepatic Impairment
  • 8.9 Renal Impairment
• 9 DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE
  • 9.1 Controlled Substance
  • 9.2 Abuse
  • 9.3 Dependence
• 10 OVERDOSAGE
  • 10.1 Symptoms
  • 10.2 Treatment
• 11 MORPHINE SULFATE DESCRIPTION
• 12 CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY
  • 12.1 Mechanism of Action
  • 12.2 Pharmacodynamics
  • 12.3 Pharmacokinetics
• 13 NONCLINICAL TOXICOLOGY
  • 13.1 Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility
• 16 HOW SUPPLIED/STORAGE AND HANDLING
• 17 PATIENT COUNSELING INFORMATION
• Medication Guide
• Instructions For Use
• Package/Label Display Panel - Carton
• Package/Label Display Panel - Label

FULL PRESCRIBING INFORMATION

1 INDICATIONS AND USAGE

Morphine sulfate oral solution (10 mg per 5 mL and 20 mg per 5 mL) are formulations of morphine, an opioid agonist, indicated for the relief of moderate to severe acute and chronic pain where use of an opioid analgesic is appropriate. Morphine sulfate oral solution 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) is an opioid analgesic indicated for the relief of moderate to severe acute and chronic pain in opioid-tolerant patients.

Morphine sulfate oral solution 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) may cause fatal respiratory depression when administered to patients not previously exposed to opioids. Patients considered to be opioid tolerant are those who are taking at least 60 mg oral morphine per day, or at least 30 mg of oral oxycodone per day, or at least 12 mg hydromorphone per day, or an equianalgesic dose of another opioid, for a week or longer.

2 DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION

Morphine Oral Solution is available in three concentrations: 10 mg per 5 mL, 20 mg per 5 mL and 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL).

Take care when prescribing and administering Morphine Oral Solution to avoid dosing errors due to confusion between different concentrations and between mg and mL, which could result in accidental overdose and death. Take care to ensure the proper dose is communicated and dispensed. When writing prescriptions, include both the total dose in mg and the total dose in volume. Always use the enclosed calibrated oral syringe when administering Morphine Oral Solution 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) to ensure the dose is measured and administered accurately.

Selection of patients for treatment with morphine sulfate should be governed by the same principles that apply to the use of similar opioid analgesics. Individualize treatment in every case, using non-opioid analgesics, opioids on an as needed basis and/or combination products, and chronic opioid therapy in a progressive plan of pain management such as outlined by the World Health Organization, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, and the American Pain Society.

2.1 Individualization of Dosage

As with any opioid drug product, adjust the dosing regimen for each patient individually, taking into account the patient’s prior analgesic treatment experience. In the selection of the initial dose of morphine sulfate, give attention to the following:

• •the total daily dose, potency and specific characteristics of the opioid the patient has been taking previously;
• •the reliability of the relative potency estimate used to calculate the equivalent morphine sulfate dose needed;
• •the patient’s degree of opioid tolerance;
• •the general condition and medical status of the patient;
• •concurrent medications;
• •the type and severity of the patient’s pain;
• •risk factors for abuse, addiction or diversion, including a prior history of abuse, addiction or diversion.

The following dosing recommendations, therefore, can only be considered suggested approaches to what is actually a series of clinical decisions over time in the management of the pain of each individual patient.

Continual reevaluation of the patient receiving morphine sulfate is important, with special attention to the maintenance of pain control and the relative incidence of side effects associated with therapy. During chronic therapy, especially for non-cancer-related pain, periodically reassess the continued need for the use of opioid analgesics.

During periods of changing analgesic requirements, including initial titration, frequent contact is recommended between physician, other members of the healthcare team, the patient, and the caregiver/family.

2.2 Initiation of Therapy in Opioid-Naïve Patients

Start patients who have not been receiving opioid analgesics on morphine sulfate in the following dosing range using Oral Solution, 10 mg per 5 mL or 20 mg per 5 mL strengths:

Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution: 10 to 20 mg every 4 hours as needed for pain.

Titrate the dose based upon the individual patient’s response to their initial dose of morphine sulfate. Adjust the dose to an acceptable level of analgesia taking into account the improvement in pain intensity and the tolerability of the morphine by the patient.

The 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) oral solution formulation is for use in opioid-tolerant patients only who have already been receiving opioid therapy. Use this strength only for patients that have already been titrated to a stable analgesic regimen using lower strengths of morphine sulfate and who can benefit from use of a smaller volume of oral solution.

2.3 Conversion to Oral Morphine Sulfate

There is inter-patient variability in the potency of opioid drugs and opioid formulations. Therefore, a conservative approach is advised when determining the total daily dose of morphine sulfate. It is better to underestimate a patient’s 24-hour oral morphine sulfate dose and make available rescue medication than to overestimate the 24-hour oral morphine sulfate dose and manage an adverse experience of overdose.

Consider the following general points regarding opioid conversions.

Conversion From Parenteral Morphine to Oral Morphine Sulfate

For conversion from parenteral to oral morphine sulfate, anywhere from 3 to 6 mg of oral morphine sulfate may be required to provide pain relief equivalent to 1 mg of parenteral morphine.

Conversion From Parenteral or Oral Non-Morphine Opioids to Oral Morphine Sulfate

In converting patients from other opioids to morphine sulfate, close observation and adjustment of dosage based upon the patient’s response to morphine sulfate is imperative. Physicians and other healthcare professionals are advised to refer to published relative potency information, keeping in mind that conversion ratios are only approximate.

Conversion From Controlled-Release Oral Morphine to Oral Morphine Sulfate

For a given dose, the same total amount of morphine sulfate is available from Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution, Morphine Sulfate Tablets, and controlled-release and extended-release morphine capsules. The extended duration of release of morphine sulfate from controlled-release tablets or extended-release tablets results in reduced maximum and increased minimum plasma morphine sulfate concentrations than with shorter acting morphine sulfate products. Conversion from oral solution or immediate-release tablets to the same total daily dose of controlled-release tablets or extended-release tablets could lead to excessive sedation at peak serum levels. Therefore, dosage adjustment with close observation is necessary.

2.4 Maintenance of Therapy

Continual reevaluation of the patient receiving morphine sulfate is important, with special attention to the maintenance of pain control and the relative incidence of side effects associated with therapy. If the level of pain increases, effort should be made to identify the source of increased pain, while adjusting the dose as described above to decrease the level of pain. During chronic therapy, especially for non-cancer-related pain (or pain associated with other terminal illnesses), periodically reassess the continued need for the use of opioid analgesics.

2.5 Cessation of Therapy

When the patient no longer requires therapy with morphine sulfate, gradually taper the dose to prevent signs and symptoms of withdrawal in the physically dependent patient.

3 DOSAGE FORMS AND STRENGTHS

For the 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) strength: Each 5 mL of clear/colorless to light yellow Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution contains morphine sulfate 100 mg. The concentration of this solution is 20 mg/mL.

4 CONTRAINDICATIONS

Morphine sulfate is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to morphine, morphine salts, or any components of the product.

Morphine sulfate is contraindicated in patients with respiratory depression in the absence of resuscitative equipment. Morphine sulfate is contraindicated in patients with acute or severe bronchial asthma or hypercarbia.

Morphine sulfate is contraindicated in any patient who has or is suspected of having paralytic ileus.

5 WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS

5.1 Risk of Medication Errors

Morphine Oral Solution is available in 10 mg per 5 mL, 20 mg per 5 mL and 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) concentrations. Use caution when prescribing, dispensing, and administering Morphine Oral Solution to avoid dosing errors due to confusion between different concentrations and between mg and mL, which could result in accidental overdose and death. Use caution to ensure the dose is communicated clearly and dispensed accurately. Always use the enclosed calibrated oral syringe when administering Morphine Oral Solution 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) to ensure the dose is measured and administered accurately.

5.2 Respiratory Depression

Respiratory depression is the primary risk of morphine sulfate. Respiratory depression occurs more frequently in elderly or debilitated patients and in those suffering from conditions accompanied by hypoxia, hypercapnia, or upper airway obstruction, in whom even moderate therapeutic doses may significantly decrease pulmonary ventilation.

Use morphine sulfate with extreme caution in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cor pulmonale and in patients having a substantially decreased respiratory reserve (e.g., severe kyphoscoliosis), hypoxia, hypercapnia, or pre-existing respiratory depression. In such patients, even usual therapeutic doses of morphine sulfate may increase airway resistance and decrease respiratory drive to the point of apnea. Consider alternative non-opioid analgesics, and use morphine sulfate only under careful medical supervision at the lowest effective dose in such patients.

Morphine sulfate 100 mg per 5 mL (20 mg/mL) oral solution is for use in opioid-tolerant patients only. Administration of this formulation may cause fatal respiratory depression when administered to patients who are not tolerant to the respiratory depressant effects of opioids.

5.3 Misuse, Abuse and Diversion of Opioids

Morphine sulfate is an opioid agonist and a Schedule II controlled substance. Such drugs are sought by drug abusers and people with addiction disorders. Diversion of Schedule II products is an act subject to criminal penalty.

Morphine sulfate can be abused in a manner similar to other opioid agonists, legal or illicit. This should be considered when prescribing or dispensing morphine sulfate in situations where the physician or pharmacist is concerned about an increased risk of misuse, abuse, or diversion.

Morphine sulfate may be abused by inhaling or injecting the product. These practices pose a significant risk to the abuser that could result in overdose and death. [See DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE (9) ]

Concerns about abuse, addiction, and diversion should not prevent the proper management of pain. Healthcare professionals should contact their State Professional Licensing Board or State Controlled Substances Authority for information on how to prevent and detect abuse or diversion of this product.

5.4 Interactions with Alcohol and Drugs of Abuse

Morphine sulfate may be expected to have additive effects when used in conjunction with alcohol, other opioids, or illicit drugs that cause central nervous system depression because respiratory depression, hypotension, profound sedation, coma or death may result.

5.5 Use In Head Injury and Increased Intracranial Pressure

In the presence of head injury, intracranial lesions or a preexisting increase in intracranial pressure, the possible respiratory depressant effects of morphine sulfate and its potential to elevate cerebrospinal fluid pressure (resulting from vasodilation following CO₂ retention) may be markedly exaggerated. Furthermore, morphine sulfate can produce effects on pupillary response and consciousness, which may obscure neurologic signs of further increases in intracranial pressure in patients with head injuries.

5.6 Hypotensive Effects

Morphine sulfate may cause severe hypotension in an individual whose ability to maintain blood pressure has already been compromised by a depleted blood volume or concurrent administration of drugs such as phenothiazines or general anesthetics. Morphine sulfate may produce orthostatic hypotension and syncope in ambulatory patients.

Administer morphine sulfate with caution to patients in circulatory shock, as vasodilation produced by the drug may further reduce cardiac output and blood pressure.

5.7 Gastrointestinal Effects

Do not administer morphine sulfate to patients with gastrointestinal obstruction, especially paralytic ileus because morphine sulfate diminishes propulsive peristaltic waves in the gastrointestinal tract and may prolong the obstruction.

The administration of morphine sulfate may obscure the diagnosis or clinical course in patients with acute abdominal conditions.

5.8 Use in Pancreatic/Biliary Tract Disease

Use morphine sulfate with caution in patients with biliary tract disease, including acute pancreatitis, as morphine sulfate may cause spasm of the sphincter of Oddi and diminish biliary and pancreatic secretions.

5.9 Special Risk Groups

Use morphine sulfate with caution and in reduced dosages in patients with severe renal or hepatic impairment, Addison’s disease, hypothyroidism, prostatic hypertrophy, or urethral stricture, and in elderly or debilitated patients. [See USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS (8.5) ]

Exercise caution in the administration of morphine sulfate to patients with CNS depression, toxic psychosis, acute alcoholism and delirium tremens.

All opioids may aggravate convulsions in patients with convulsive disorders, and all opioids may induce or aggravate seizures in some clinical settings.

Keep Morphine Oral Solution out of the reach of children. In case of accidental ingestion, seek emergency medical help immediately.

5.10 Driving and Operating Machinery

Caution patients that morphine sulfate could impair the mental and/or physical abilities needed to perform potentially hazardous activities such as driving a car or operating machinery.

Caution patients about the potential combined effects of morphine sulfate with other CNS depressants, including other opioids, phenothiazines, sedative/hypnotics and alcohol. [See DRUG INTERACTIONS (7) ]

6 ADVERSE REACTIONS

Serious adverse reactions associated with morphine sulfate use include: respiratory depression, apnea, and to a lesser degree, circulatory depression, respiratory arrest, shock and cardiac arrest.

The common adverse reactions seen on initiation of therapy with morphine sulfate are dose-dependent and are typical opioid-related side effects. The most frequent of these include constipation, nausea, and somnolence. Other commonly observed adverse reactions include: lightheadedness, dizziness, sedation, vomiting, and sweating. The frequency of these events depends upon several factors including clinical setting, the patient’s level of opioid tolerance, and host factors specific to the individual. Anticipate and manage these events as part of opioid analgesia therapy.

Other less frequently observed adverse reactions expected from opioid analgesics, including morphine sulfate include:

Body as a Whole: malaise, withdrawal syndrome

Cardiovascular System: bradycardia, hypertension, hypotension, palpitations, syncope, tachycardia

Digestive System: anorexia, biliary pain, dyspepsia, dysphagia, gastroenteritis, abnormal liver function tests, rectal disorder, thirst

Endocrine: hypogonadism

Hemic and Lymphatic System: anemia, thrombocytopenia

Metabolic and Nutritional Disorders: edema, weight loss

Musculoskeletal: skeletal muscle rigidity, decreased bone mineral density

Nervous System: abnormal dreams, abnormal gait, agitation, amnesia, anxiety, ataxia, confusion, convulsions, coma, delirium, depression, dry mouth, euphoria, hallucinations, lethargy, nervousness, abnormal thinking, tremor, vasodilation, vertigo, headache

Respiratory System: hiccup, hypoventilation, voice alteration

Skin and Appendages: dry skin, urticaria, pruritus

Special Senses: amblyopia, eye pain, taste perversion

Urogenital System: abnormal ejaculation, dysuria, impotence, decreased libido, oliguria, urinary retention or hesitancy, anti-diuretic effect, amenorrhea

7 DRUG INTERACTIONS

7.1 CNS Depressants

Other central nervous system (CNS) depressants including sedatives, hypnotics, general anesthetics, antiemetics, phenothiazines, or other tranquilizers or alcohol increase the risk of respiratory depression, hypotension, profound sedation, or coma. Use morphine sulfate with caution and in reduced dosages in patients taking these agents.

7.2 Muscle Relaxants

Morphine sulfate may enhance the neuromuscular blocking action of skeletal muscle relaxants and produce an increased degree of respiratory depression.

7.3 Mixed Agonist/Antagonist Opioid Analgesics

Do not administer mixed agonist/antagonist analgesics (i.e., pentazocine, nalbuphine, and butorphanol) to patients who have received or are receiving a course of therapy with a pure opioid agonist analgesic such as morphine sulfate. In these patients, mixed agonist/antagonist analgesics may reduce the analgesic effect and/or may precipitate withdrawal symptoms.

7.4 Cimetidine

Concomitant administration of morphine sulfate and cimetidine has been reported to precipitate apnea, confusion, and muscle twitching in an isolated report. Monitor patients for increased respiratory and CNS depression when receiving cimetidine concomitantly with morphine sulfate.

7.5 Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)

MAOIs markedly potentiate the action of morphine sulfate. Allow at least 14 days after stopping treatment with MAOIs before initiating treatment with morphine sulfate.

7.6 Anticholinergics

Anticholinergics or other medications with anticholinergic activity when used concurrently with opioid analgesics may result in increased risk of urinary retention and/or severe constipation, which may lead to paralytic ileus.

7.7 P-Glycoprotein (PGP) Inhibitors

Based on published reports, PGP inhibitors (e.g. quinidine) may increase the absorption/exposure of morphine sulfate by about two fold. Therefore, exercise caution when morphine sulfate is co-administered with PGP inhibitors.

8 USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS

8.1 Pregnancy

No formal studies to assess the teratogenic effects of morphine in animals have been conducted. It is also not known whether morphine can cause fetal harm when administered to a pregnant woman or can affect reproductive capacity. Morphine should be given to a pregnant woman only if clearly needed.

In humans, the frequency of congenital anomalies has been reported to be no greater than expected among the children of 70 women who were treated with morphine during the first four months of pregnancy or in 448 women treated with morphine anytime during pregnancy. Furthermore, no malformations were observed in the infant of a woman who attempted suicide by taking an overdose of morphine and other medication during the first trimester of pregnancy.

Several literature reports indicate that morphine administered subcutaneously during the early gestational period in mice and hamsters produced neurological, soft tissue and skeletal abnormalities. With one exception, the effects that have been reported were following doses that were maternally toxic and the abnormalities noted were characteristic of those observed when maternal toxicity is present. In one study, following subcutaneous infusion of doses greater than or equal to 0.15 mg/kg to mice, exencephaly, hydronephrosis, intestinal hemorrhage, split supraoccipital, malformed sternebrae, and malformed xiphoid were noted in the absence of maternal toxicity. In the hamster, morphine sulfate given subcutaneously on gestation day 8 produced exencephaly and cranioschisis. In rats treated with subcutaneous infusions of morphine during the period of organogenesis, no teratogenicity was observed. No maternal toxicity was observed in this study, however, increased mortality and growth retardation were seen in the offspring. In two studies performed in the rabbit, no evidence of teratogenicity was reported at subcutaneous doses up to 100 mg/kg.

Nonteratogenic Effects

Controlled studies of chronic in utero morphine exposure in pregnant women have not been conducted. Infants born to mothers who have taken opioids chronically may exhibit withdrawal symptoms, reversible reduction in brain volume, small size, decreased ventilatory response to CO₂ and increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Morphine sulfate should be used by a pregnant woman only if the need for opioid analgesia clearly outweighs the potential risks to the fetus.

Published literature has reported that exposure to morphine during pregnancy is associated with reduction in growth and a host of behavioral abnormalities in the offspring. Morphine treatment during gestational periods of organogenesis in rats, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits resulted in the following treatment-related embryotoxicity and neonatal toxicity in one or more studies: decreased litter size, embryo-fetal viability, fetal and neonatal body weights, absolute brain and cerebellar weights, delayed motor and sexual maturation, and increased neonatal mortality, cyanosis and hypothermia. Decreased fertility in female offspring, and decreased plasma and testicular levels of luteinizing hormone and testosterone, decreased testes weights, seminiferous tubule shrinkage, germinal cell aplasia, and decreased spermatogenesis in male offspring were also observed. Decreased litter size and viability were observed in the offspring of male rats administered morphine (25 mg/kg, IP) for 1 day prior to mating. Behavioral abnormalities resulting from chronic morphine exposure of fetal animals included altered reflex and motor skill development, mild withdrawal, and altered responsiveness to morphine persisting into adulthood.

8.2 Labor and Delivery

Opioids cross the placenta and may produce respiratory depression and psycho-physiologic effects in neonates. Morphine sulfate is not recommended for use in women during and immediately prior to labor. Occasionally, opioid analgesics may prolong labor through actions which temporarily reduce the strength, duration and frequency of uterine contractions. However this effect is not consistent and may be offset by an increased rate of cervical dilatation, which tends to shorten labor. Closely observe neonates whose mothers received opioid analgesics during labor for signs of respiratory depression. Have a specific opioid antagonist, such as naloxone, available for reversal of opioid-induced respiratory depression in the neonate.

8.3 Nursing Mothers

Low levels of morphine sulfate have been detected in maternal milk. The milk:plasma morphine AUC ratio is about 2.5:1. The amount of morphine sulfate delivered to the infant depends on the plasma concentration of the mother, the amount of milk ingested by the infant, and the extent of first-pass metabolism. Because of the potential for serious adverse reactions in nursing infants from morphine sulfate including respiratory depression, sedation and possibly withdrawal symptoms, upon cessation of morphine sulfate administration to the mother, decide whether to discontinue nursing or to discontinue the drug, taking into account the importance of the drug to the mother.

8.4 Pediatric Use

The safety and effectiveness and the pharmacokinetics of Morphine Sulfate Oral Solution in pediatric patients below the age of 18 have not been established.

8.5 Geriatric Use

Elderly patients (aged 65 years or older) may have increased sensitivity to morphine sulfate. In general, use caution when selecting a dose for an elderly patient, usually starting at the low end of the dosing range, reflecting the greater frequency of decreased hepatic, renal, or cardiac function and of concomitant disease or other drug therapy.

8.6 Neonatal Withdrawal Syndrome

Chronic maternal use of opioids during pregnancy may cause newborns to suffer from neonatal withdrawal syndrome (NWS) following birth. Manifestations of this syndrome include irritability, hyperactivity, abnormal sleep pattern, high-pitched cry, tremor, vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, and failure to gain weight. The time and amount of the mother’s last dose and the rate of elimination of the drug from the newborn may affect the onset, duration, and severity of the disorder. When severe symptoms occur, pharmacologic intervention may be required.

8.7 Gender

While evidence of greater postoperative morphine sulfate consumption in men compared to women is present in the literature, clinically significant differences in analgesic outcomes and pharmacokinetic parameters have not been consistently demonstrated. Some studies have shown an increased sensitivity to the adverse effects of morphine sulfate, including respiratory depression, in women compared to men.

8.8 Hepatic Impairment

Morphine sulfate pharmacokinetics have been reported to be significantly altered in patients with cirrhosis. Clearance was found to decrease with a corresponding increase in half-life. The M3G and M6G to morphine AUC ratios also decreased in these subjects, indicating diminished metabolic activity. Start these patients cautiously with lower doses of morphine sulfate and titrate slowly while carefully monitoring for side effects.

8.9 Renal Impairment

Morphine sulfate pharmacokinetics are altered in patients with renal failure. Clearance is decreased and the metabolites, M3G and M6G, may accumulate to much higher plasma levels in patients with renal failure as compared to patients with normal renal function. Start these patients cautiously with lower doses of morphine sulfate and titrate slowly while carefully monitoring for side effects.

9 DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE

9.1 Controlled Substance

Morphine sulfate is a mu-agonist opioid and is a Schedule II controlled substance. Morphine sulfate, like other opioids used in analgesia, can be abused and is subject to criminal diversion.

9.2 Abuse

Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive use, use for non-medical purposes, and continued use despite harm or risk of harm. Drug addiction is a treatable disease, utilizing a multidisciplinary approach, but relapse is common. “Drug-seeking” behavior is very common in addicts and drug abusers. Drug-seeking tactics include emergency calls or visits near the end of office hours, refusal to undergo appropriate examination, testing or referral, repeated “loss” of prescriptions, tampering with prescriptions and reluctance to provide prior medical records or contact information for other treating physician(s). “Doctor shopping” to obtain additional prescriptions is common among drug abusers and people suffering from untreated addiction.

Abuse and addiction are separate and distinct from physical dependence and tolerance. Physicians should be aware that addiction may not be accompanied by concurrent tolerance and symptoms of physical dependence. The converse is also true. In addition, abuse of opioids can occur in the absence of true addiction and is characterized by misuse for nonmedical purposes, often in combination with other psychoactive substances. Careful recordkeeping of prescribing information, including quantity, frequency, and renewal requests is strongly advised.

Morphine sulfate is intended for oral use only. Abuse of morphine sulfate poses a risk of overdose and death. The risk is increased with concurrent abuse of alcohol and other substances. Parenteral drug abuse is commonly associated with transmission of infectious diseases such as hepatitis and HIV.

Proper assessment of the patient, proper prescribing practices, periodic reevaluation of therapy, and proper dispensing and storage are appropriate measures that help to limit abuse of opioid drugs.

Infants born to mothers physically dependent on opioids will also be physically dependent and may exhibit respiratory difficulties and withdrawal symptoms. [See USE IN SPECIFIC POPULATIONS (8.6) ]

9.3 Dependence

Tolerance is the need for increasing doses of opioids to maintain a defined effect such as analgesia (in the absence of disease progression or other external factors). Physical dependence is manifested by withdrawal symptoms after abrupt discontinuation of a drug or upon administration of an antagonist. Physical dependence and tolerance are not unusual during chronic opioid therapy.

The opioid abstinence or withdrawal syndrome is characterized by some or all of the following: restlessness, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, yawning, perspiration, chills, myalgia, and mydriasis. Other symptoms also may develop, including irritability, anxiety, backache, joint pain, weakness, abdominal cramps, insomnia, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, or increased blood pressure, respiratory rate, or heart rate.

In general, taper opioids rather than abruptly discontinue. [See DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION (2.5) ]

10 OVERDOSAGE

10.1 Symptoms

Acute overdosage with morphine sulfate is manifested by respiratory depression (a decrease in respiratory rate and/or tidal volume, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, cyanosis), extreme somnolence progressing to stupor or coma, skeletal muscle flaccidity, cold and clammy skin, constricted pupils, and, in some cases, pulmonary edema, bradycardia, hypotension, cardiac arrest and death.

Morphine sulfate may cause miosis, even in total darkness. Pinpoint pupils are a sign of opioid overdose but are not pathognomonic (e.g., pontine lesions of hemorrhagic or ischemic origin may produce similar findings). Marked mydriasis rather than miosis may be seen with hypoxia in overdose situations. [See CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY ]

10.2 Treatment

Give primary attention to reestablishment of a patent airway and institution of assisted or controlled ventilation. Employ supportive measures (including oxygen and vasopressors) in the management of circulatory shock and pulmonary edema accompanying overdose as indicated. Cardiac arrest or arrhythmias may require cardiac massage or defibrillation.

Naloxone is a pure opioid antagonist that is a specific antidote to respiratory depression resulting from opioid overdose. Since the duration of reversal is expected to be less than the duration of action of morphine sulfate, carefully monitor the patient until spontaneous respiration is reliably reestablished. If the response to opioid antagonists is suboptimal or only brief in nature, administer additional antagonist as directed by the manufacturer of the product.

Do not administer opioid antagonists in the absence of clinically significant respiratory or circulatory depression secondary to morphine sulfate overdose. Administer such agents cautiously to persons who are known, or suspected to be physically dependent on morphine sulfate. In such cases, an abrupt or complete reversal of opioid effects may precipitate an acute abstinence syndrome.

In an individual physically dependent on opioids, administration of the usual dose of the antagonist will precipitate an acute withdrawal syndrome. The severity of the withdrawal symptoms experienced will depend on the degree of physical dependence and the dose of the antagonist administered. Reserve use of an opioid antagonist for cases where such treatment is clearly needed. If it is necessary to treat serious respiratory depression in the physically dependent patient, initiate administration of the antagonist with care and titrate with smaller than usual doses.

11 DESCRIPTION

Chemically, morphine sulfate is 7,8-didehydro-4,5 alpha-epoxy-17 methyl-morphinan-3,6 alpha-diol sulfate (2:1) (salt) pentahydrate with a molecular mass of 758. Morphine sulfate occurs as white, feathery, silky crystals; cubical masses of crystal; or white crystalline powder. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol, but is practically insoluble in chloroform or ether. The octanol:water partition coefficient of morphine is 1.42 at physiologic pH and the pKa is 7.9 for the tertiary nitrogen (the majority is ionized at pH 7.4).